Opinion · Supreme Court of the United States

Commissioner v. Tower

327 U.S. 280

Type
Opinion
Court
Supreme Court of the United States
Jurisdiction
Federal
Date
1946-02-25
Topic
general

How later courts describe this case

  • noting that a partnership is generally created when there is a “community of interest in the profits and losses”
  • holding that federal law governs whether parties formed partnership for tax purposes
  • concluding in a tax deficiency. proceeding that a wife was not a partner in a business, which made income attributable only to the husband
  • explaining that a partnership involves “sharing in the profits or losses or both”
  • Tax court deciding a tax question “is not governed by how Michigan law might treat the same circumstances for purposes of state law.”
  • “[T]he question ... [is] whether the partners really and truly intended to join together for the purpose of carrying on business and sharing in the profits or losses or both.”
  • <rWhen the existence of an alleged partnership arrangement is challenged by outsiders, the question arises whether the partners really and truly intended to join together for the purpose of carrying on business and sharing in the profits or losses or both.”
  • “[T]he question arises whether the partners really and truly intended to join together for the purposes of carrying on business and sharing in the profits or losses or both. And their intention in this respect is a question of fact....”

Citator

UpLaw has not yet analyzed Commissioner v. Tower. The absence of a flag is not a finding that it is good law.

Cited by
1043 opinions

Headnotes

  1. Tax Law — Income Where a husband purports to give his wife a partnership interest in a business he manages and controls, the wife does not share in management or control, and she contributes no vital additional service, the Tax Court may properly consider these circumstances in determining whether the alleged partnership is real within the meaning of the federal revenue laws. 327 U.S. at 290
  2. Tax Law — Income A partnership is generally created when persons join together their money, goods, labor, or skill for the purpose of carrying on a trade, profession, or business, and when there is a community of interest in the profits and losses. 327 U.S. at 286
  3. Tax Law — Income When the existence of an alleged partnership is challenged by outsiders, the question is whether the partners really and truly intended to join together for the purpose of carrying on business and sharing in the profits or losses or both; that intention is a question of fact, to be determined from the parties' agreement considered as a whole and their conduct in executing its provisions, and this general rule applies in tax cases where the Government challenges the existence of a partnership for tax purposes. 327 U.S. at 286-287
  4. Tax Law — Income A finding of fact by the Tax Court that is supported by evidence is final. 327 U.S. at 287
  5. Tax Law — Income In determining whether a partnership is real for purposes of the federal tax laws, the Tax Court is not bound by how state law would treat the same circumstances for state purposes; state law cannot decide issues of federal tax law or hamper the effective enforcement of a valid federal tax levied against earned income. 327 U.S. at 287-288
  6. Tax Law — Income Although a taxpayer has the legal right to decrease or altogether avoid what would otherwise be his taxes by means the law permits, the Tax Court need not shut its eyes to the realities of tax avoidance schemes, and a showing that a family partnership arrangement was made for the express purpose of reducing taxes lends further support to the inference that the husband still controls the income and that no partnership really exists. 327 U.S. at 288
  7. Tax Law — Income The determinative question in challenges to a family partnership is not simply who actually owned a share of the capital attributed to the wife on the partnership books, but who earned the income; a person may be taxed on profits earned from property he neither owns nor controls, so the issue is who worked for, otherwise created, or controlled the income. 327 U.S. at 289
  8. Tax Law — Income Whether a husband and wife really intended to carry on business as a partnership cannot be decided by looking at a single step in a complicated transaction; to decide who worked for, otherwise created, or controlled the income, all steps in the process of earning the profits must be taken into consideration. 327 U.S. at 289-290
  9. Tax Law — Income A wife may become a general or limited partner with her husband for tax, as for other, purposes if she invests capital originating with her, substantially contributes to the control and management of the business, or otherwise performs vital additional services, in which case income attributable to her share belongs to her. 327 U.S. at 290
  10. Tax Law — Income It is the command of the taxpayer over the income with which the tax laws are concerned, and income earned by one person is taxable as his if given to another for the donor's satisfaction; transactions between husband and wife calculated to reduce family taxes should always be subjected to special scrutiny. 327 U.S. at 290-291
  11. Tax Law — Income If the end result of creating a husband-wife partnership, though valid under state law, is that income produced by the husband's efforts continues to be used for the same business and family purposes as before the partnership, failure to tax it as the husband's income would frustrate the purpose of 26 U.S.C. § 22(a); by the simple expedient of drawing up papers, single tax earnings cannot be divided into two tax units and surtaxes cannot thereby be avoided. 327 U.S. at 291
  12. Tax Law — Income Where the husband continues to manage and control the business after formation of the purported partnership exactly as before, the wife takes no part in management or operation, no capital not previously available is brought into the business, and the wife draws on income attributed to her only to buy the same type of things she bought for herself and her family before the partnership, the partnership amounts to a mere paper reallocation of income among family members, and such evidence supports a finding that no genuine union for partnership business purposes was intended and that the husband earned the income. 327 U.S. at 291-292
COMMISSIONERv. TOWER,327 U.S. 280(1946)
66 S.Ct. 532
COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUEv. TOWER.
CERTIORARI TO THE CIRCUIT COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT.
No. 317.
Argued January 10, 11, 1946.
Decided February 25, 1946.
Respondent had managed and controlled a manufacturing business since 1927. From 1933 to 1937 it was operated as a corporation. He was president, owning 445 out of 500 shares; his wife was nominal vice president, owning five shares; and one Amidon was secretary, owning 25 shares. Respondent transferred 190 shares to his wife, paying a gift tax; and, three days later, in order to save taxes, the corporation was dissolved and a partnership was organized consisting of respondent and Amidon as general partners and respondent's wife as a limited partner with no authority to participate in the conduct of the business. Each contributed the value of his stock and no new capital was contributed. Respondent continued to manage and control the business, which was conducted as before except that respondent and Amidon ceased to draw salaries. The wife contributed no services to the business and used her share of the income to buy the same type of things she had bought for herself, home and family before the partnership was formed.Held:1. These facts were sufficient to support a finding by the Tax Court that, as between respondent and his wife, no genuine "partnership" within the meaning of26 U.S.C. § 181,182existed, that respondent earned the income, and that he should be taxed on it under26 U.S.C. § 22(a). Pp. 286, 291, 292. 2. A finding of fact by the Tax Court, being supported by evidence, is final. P. 287. 3. In passing on the question whether an alleged partnership is a real partnership within the meaning of the federal tax laws, the Tax Court is not governed by the treatment of the partnership by state law and decisions for purposes of state law. P. 287. 4. While the legal right of a taxpayer to decrease the amount of what otherwise would be his taxes or altogether avoid them by means which the law permits can not be doubted,Gregoryv.Helvering,293 U.S. 465, this Court can not order the Tax Court to shut its eyes to the realities of tax avoidance schemes. P. 288.Page 2815. In passing on the applicability of26 U.S.C. § 181,182to income from a "family partnership" — (a) The question is not simply who actually owned a share of the capital attributed to the wife on the partnership books but who earned the income. P. 289. (b) In this case, that issue depends on whether the husband and wife really intended to carry on business as a partnership. P. 289. (c) These issues can not be decided simply by looking at a single step in a complicated transaction. Pp. 289, 290. (d) To decide who worked for, otherwise created or controlled the income, all steps in the process of earning the profits must be taken into consideration. Pp. 290. 6. A wife may become a general or limited partner with her husband for tax, as for other, purposes; but, when the husband purports to have given her a partnership interest, she does not share in the management and control of the business, and she contributes no vital additional service, the Tax Court may properly take these circumstances into consideration in determining whether the partnership is real within the meaning of the federal tax laws. P. 290. 7. If, in the circumstances of this case, the end result of the creation of a husband-wife partnership, though valid under state laws, is that income produced by the husband's efforts continues to be used for the same business and family purposes as before the partnership, failure to tax it as the husband's income would frustrate the purpose of26 U.S.C. § 22(a), defining gross income as including all earnings of any individual from "any source whatever." P. 291. 8. Single tax earnings can not be divided into two tax units and surtaxes avoided by the simple expedient of drawing up papers creating a husband-wife partnership. P. 291.148 F.2d 388, reversed.
The Commissioner of Internal Revenue levied a deficiency
assessment against respondent on the ground that the part of the
earnings of a "family partnership" which had been paid to, and
reported by, his wife actually had been earned by respondent and
should have been reported as his income. The Tax Court sustained
the levy.3 T.C. 396. The circuit court of appeals reversed.
Page 282
148 F.2d 388. This Court granted certiorari.326 U.S. 703.
Reversed, p. 292.
Arnold Raumargued the cause for petitioner. With him on the brief wereSolicitor General McGrath, Assistant Attorney GeneralSamuel O. Clark, Jr., Sewall Key, Helen R. CarlossandJohn F.Costelloe.Oscar E. Waerargued the cause and filed a brief for respondent.
MR. JUSTICE BLACK delivered the opinion of the Court.
The Commissioner of Internal Revenue determined that respondent's wife had in her income tax returns for 1940 and 1941 reported as her earnings income that actually had been earned by her husband but had not been reported in his returns. A deficiency assessment was consequently levied against the respondent by the Commissioner. The particular earnings involved were a portion of net income attributed to a partnership, to which, according to its records, 90 per cent of the capital had been contributed by respondent and his wife; of this, 51 per cent had been contributed by the respondent and 39 per cent by his wife. If, as respondent asserts, the circumstances surrounding the formation and operation of this partnership were such as to bring it within the meaning of §§ 181 and 182 of Title 26 of the United States Code, then the respondent and his wife are liable only for their respective individual share of the business' income. These sections provide that partners are liable for taxes on partnership income only in their "individual capacity" and that each partner shall report "his distributive share of the ordinary net income . . . of the partnership . . ." But § 11 of Title 26 of the United States Code levies a tax on the "net income of every individual," and the "net income" is required to be computed on the basis of "gross income" as defined in § 22(a), which broadly includesPage 283all earnings of any individual from "any source whatever." And we have held that the dominant purpose of all sections of the revenue laws, including these, is "the taxation of income to those who earn or otherwise create the right to receive it and enjoy the benefit of it when paid."Helveringv.Horst,311 U.S. 112,119. The basic question in deciding whether the Commissioner's deficiency assessment was proper, is: Was the income attributed to the wife as a partner income from a partnership for which she alone was liable in her "individual capacity," as provided by26 U.S.C. § 181and182, or did the husband, despite the claimed partnership, actually create the right to receive and enjoy the benefit of the income, so as to make it taxable to him under §§ 11 and 22(a)?

The respondent asked the Tax Court to review and redetermine the Commissioner's deficiency assessment, insisting that the income in question was not the respondent's but his wife's share in a partnership. The Commissioner urged in the Tax Court that the wife had contributed neither services nor capital to the partnership and that her alleged membership in the partnership was a sham. Respondent admitted that she had not contributed her services, but contended that she had made a contribution of capital as shown by the amount attributed to her on the partnership books and that she was a bona fide partner. Her alleged contribution consisted of assets which the husband claimed to have given to her three days before the formation of the partnership.

The Tax Court concluded that the respondent had never executed a complete gift of the assets which his wife later purportedly contributed to the partnership; that after the partnership was formed respondent continued to manage and control the business as he had done for many years before; that his economic relation to the portion of the partnership income which was attributed to his wife was such that it continued to be available to be used for thePage 284same purposes as before, including ordinary family purposes; that the effect of the whole partnership arrangement, so far as it involved respondent and his wife, was a mere reallocation of respondent's business income within the family group; and that the dissolution of the corporation and the subsequent formation of the partnership fulfilled no business purpose other than a reduction of the husband's income tax. The Tax Court concluded that this family partnership income was in fact earned by the husband; that there was no real partnership between petitioner and his wife for purposes of carrying on a business enterprise; that the wife received a portion of the income "only by reason of her marital relationship," and held that the entire income was, therefore, taxable to the respondent under26 U.S.C. § 22(a).3 T.C. 396. The Circuit Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit reversed.148 F.2d 388. The Circuit Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit sustained a holding by the Tax Court, based on facts in all material respects similar to the ones in this case, that all the income from a husband-wife partnership was taxable income of the husband under26 U.S.C. § 22(a).Lusthausv.Commissioner,149 F.2d 232. Other circuit courts of appeals have also sustained similar holdings by the Tax Court.1As is indicated by numerous Tax Court decisions, attempts to escape surtaxes by dividing one earned income into two or more through the device of family partnerships have recently created an acute problem.2Because of the various views expressed as to controlling legal principles in the decisions discussing such arrangements, we granted certiorari both in this and theLusthauscase,post, p. 293.Page 285

A statement of some of the pertinent facts shown by the record and on which the Tax Court based its conclusion will cast some light on the problem. Broadly speaking, these facts follow a general pattern found in many of the "family partnership" cases. The business here involved, R.J. Tower Iron Works, is located in Greenville, Michigan and has manufactured and sold sawmill machinery and wood and metal stampings. Respondent's participation in the business dates back twenty-eight years. He has managed and controlled the company since the death of his father in 1927. During the tax years in question the business had forty to sixty employees on its pay roll. From 1933 to 1937 the business was operated as a corporation. The respondent was the president of the corporation and owned 445 out of the 500 shares outstanding,3his wife was vice president and owned five shares, and one Mr. Amidon was the secretary, owning twenty-five shares. These three also constituted the Board of Directors, and while Tower managed the corporate affairs, Amidon acted as bookkeeper. Mrs. Tower performed no business services.

In 1937 substantial profits pointed to increased taxes. Respondent's attorney and his tax accountant advised him that dissolution of the corporation and formation of a partnership with his wife as a principal partner would result in tax savings and eliminate the necessity of filing various corporate returns. The suggested change was put into effect. August 25, 1937, respondent transferred 190 shares of the corporation's stock to his wife on the condition that she place the corporate assets represented by these shares into the new partnership. Respondent, treating the stock transfer to his wife as a gift valued at $57,000.00, later paid a gift tax of $213.44. Three daysPage 286after the stock transfer the corporation was liquidated, a limited partnership was formed and a certificate of partnership was duly filed for record as required by Michigan law. According to the books, the value of the donated stock became the wife's contribution to the partnership. The formation of the partnership did not in any way alter the conduct of the business, except that both Amidon and Tower ceased to draw salaries. By an agreement made shortly thereafter, a readjustment was made in the amount of profits each partner was to receive, under which Amidon's share became the equivalent of, if not more than, the amount of the salary he had previously drawn. Under the partnership agreement the respondent continued to have the controlling voice in the business, as to purchases, sales, salaries, the time of distribution of income, and all other essentials. Respondent's wife, as a limited partner, was prohibited from participation in the conduct of the business. So far as appears, the part of her purported share of the partnership business she actually expended was used to buy what a husband usually buys for his wife such as clothes and things for the family or to carry on activities ordinarily of interest to the family as a group.

We are of the opinion that the foregoing facts were sufficient to support the Tax Court's finding that the wife was not a partner in the business.4A partnership is generally said to be created when persons join together their money, goods, labor, or skill for the purpose of carrying on a trade, profession, or business and when there is community of interest in the profits and losses.5When the existence ofPage 287an alleged partnership arrangement is challenged by outsiders, the question arises whether the partners really and truly intended to join together for the purpose of carrying on business and sharing in the profits or losses or both. And their intention in this respect is a question of fact, to be determined from testimony disclosed by their "agreement, considered as a whole, and by their conduct in execution of its provisions."Drennenv.London Assurance Co.,113 U.S. 51,56;Coxv.Hickman, 8 H.L. Cas. 268. We see no reason why this general rule should not apply in tax cases where the Government challenges the existence of a partnership for tax purposes.6Here the Tax Court, acting pursuant to its authority in connection with the enforcement of federal laws, has found from testimony before it that respondent and his wife did not intend to carry on business as a partnership. This finding of fact, since supported by evidence, is final.Commissionerv.Heininger,320 U.S. 467,475;Dobsonv.Commissioner,320 U.S. 489. The decision of the Tax Court was therefore correct unless, as respondent contends, the Tax Court erroneously disregarded or improperly applied certain legal principles.

Respondent contends that the partnership arrangement here in question would have been valid under Michigan law and argues that the Tax Court should consequently have held it valid for tax purposes also. But the Tax Court in making a final authoritative finding on the question whether this was a real partnership is not governed by how Michigan law might treat the same circumstances for purposes of state law. Thus, Michigan could and might decide that the stock-transfer here was sufficient under state law to pass title to the wife, so that in thePage 288event of her death it would pass to whatever members of her family would be entitled to receive it under Michigan's law of descent and distribution. But Michigan cannot, by its decisions and laws governing questions over which it has final say, also decide issues of federal tax law and thus hamper the effective enforcement of a valid federal tax levied against earned income. The contention was rejected inLucasv.Earl,281 U.S. 111. There husband and wife made an agreement for joint ownership of the husband's future income. Assuming that the husband's future earnings were under California law considered as partly owned by the wife, this Court refused to accept the State's concept of the effect of the agreement which would have reduced the federal tax on income actually earned by the husband. And inHelveringv.Clifford,309 U.S. 331,334-335, we held that the purpose of26 U.S.C. § 22(a) to tax all income against the person who controlled its distribution could not be frustrated by family group arrangements, even though the distribution arrangements were valid for state law purposes. The statutes of Congress designed to tax income actually earned because of the capital and efforts of each individual member of a joint enterprise are not to be frustrated by state laws which for state purposes prescribe the relations of the members to each other and to outsiders. Cf.Burk-Waggoner Assn. v.Hopkins,269 U.S. 110,114.

Respondent contends that the Tax Court's holding that he is taxable for the profits from the partnership is contrary to a principle long recognized by this Court that "The legal right of a taxpayer to decrease the amount of what otherwise would be his taxes, or altogether avoid them, by means which the law permits, cannot be doubted."Gregoryv.Helvering,293 U.S. 465,469. We do not reject that principle. It would clearly apply, for example, in a situation where a member of a partnership,Page 289in order to keep from paying future taxes on partnership profits and in order to get into a lower income tax bracket, sells his interest to a stranger, relinquishing all control of the business. But the situation is different where the taxpayer draws a paper purporting to sell his partnership interest even to a stranger, though actually he continues to control the business to the extent he had before the "sale" and channels the income to his wife. Then a showing that the arrangement was made for the express purpose of reducing taxes simply lends further support to the inference that the husband still controls the income from his partnership interest, that no partnership really exists and that earnings are really his and are therefore taxable to him and not to his wife. The arrangement we are here considering was of the type where proof of a motive to reduce income taxes simply lent further strength to the inference drawn by the Tax Court that the wife was not really a partner. See Paul, Selected Studies in Federal Taxation, 2d series, pp. 293-300. To rule otherwise would mean ordering the Tax Court to shut its eyes to the realities of tax avoidance schemes.

Respondent urges further that the Tax Court erroneously concluded that the gift was ineffective for tax purposes because it was conditional and therefore incomplete. The Government defends the Tax Court's conclusion. We do not find it necessary to decide this issue. The question here is not simply who actually owned a share of the capital attributed to the wife on the partnership books. A person may be taxed on profits earned from property, where he neither owns nor controls it.Lucasv.Earl, supra.7The issue is who earned the income and that issue depends on whether this husband and wife really intended to carry on business as a partnership. Those issues cannotPage 290be decided simply by looking at a single step in a complicated transaction. To decide who worked for, otherwise created or controlled the income, all steps in the process of earning the profits must be taken into consideration. SeeCommissionerv.Court Holding Co.,324 U.S. 331,334. Of course, the question of legal ownership of the capital purportedly contributed by a wife will frequently throw light on the broader question of whether an alleged partnership is real or pretended. But here the Tax Court's findings were supported by a sufficient number of other factors in the transaction, so that we need not decide whether its holding as to the completeness of the gift was correct. Cf.Helveringv.Hallock,309 U.S. 106,117,118;Burnetv.Wells,289 U.S. 670,677.

There can be no question that a wife and a husband may, under certain circumstances, become partners for tax, as for other, purposes. If she either invests capital originating with her or substantially contributes to the control and management of the business, or otherwise performs vital additional services, or does all of these things she may be a partner as contemplated by26 U.S.C. § 181,182. The Tax Court has recognized that under such circumstances the income belongs to the wife.8A wife may become a general or a limited partner with her husband. But when she does not share in the management and control of the business, contributes no vital additional service, and where the husband purports in some way to have given her a partnership interest, the Tax Court may properly take these circumstances into consideration in determining whether the partnership is real within the meaning of the federal revenue laws.

It is the command of the taxpayer over the income which is the concern of the tax laws.Harrisonv.Schaffner,312 U.S. 579,581,582. And income earned by onePage 291person is taxable as his, if given to another for the donor's satisfaction.Helveringv.Horst,311 U.S. 112,119. It is for this reason, among others, that we said inHelveringv.Clifford, supra, 335, that transactions between husband and wife calculated to reduce family taxes should always be subjected to special scrutiny. For if under circumstances such as those now before us, the end result of the creation of a husband-wife partnership, though valid under state laws, is that income produced by the husband's efforts continues to be used for the same business and family purposes as before the partnership, failure to tax it as the husband's income would frustrate the purpose of26 U.S.C. § 22(a). By the simple expedient of drawing up papers, single tax earnings cannot be divided into two tax units and surtaxes cannot be thus avoided.

Judged by the actual result achieved, the Tax Court was justified in finding that the partnership here brought about no real change in the economic relation of the husband and his wife to the income in question. Before the partnership the husband managed, controlled, and did a good deal of the work involved in running the business, and he had funds at his disposal which he either used in the business or expended for family purposes. The wife did not contribute her services to the business and received money from her husband for her own and family expenses. After the partnership was formed the husband continued to control and manage the business exactly as he had before. The wife again took no part in the management or operation of the business. If it be said that as a limited partner she could not share in the management without becoming a general partner the result is the same. No capital not available for use in the business before was brought into the business as a result of the formation of the partnership. And the wife drew on income which the partnership books attributed to her only for purposes of buying and paying for the type of things she had boughtPage 292for herself, home and family before the partnership was formed. Consequently the result of the partnership was a mere paper reallocation of income among the family members. The actualities of their relation to the income did not change. There was, thus, more than ample evidence to support the Tax Court's finding that no genuine union for partnership business purposes was ever intended and that the husband earned the income. Whether the evidence would have supported a different finding by the Tax Court is a question not here presented.Reversed.

The CHIEF JUSTICE and MR. JUSTICE REED dissent for the reasons stated in their dissenting opinion inLusthausv.Commissioner, post, p. 297.

MR. JUSTICE JACKSON took no part in the consideration or decision of this case.
MR. JUSTICE RUTLEDGE, concurring.
I agree with the result and with the Court's view that the evidence was amply sufficient to sustain the Tax Court's findings and conclusions in this case and inLusthausv.Commissioner,post, p. 293. Candor forces me to add, however, that in my judgment the decisions' effect is to rule that in situations of this character the formation of a limited partnership under state law between husband and wife, with the latter as the limited partner, following immediately upon the husband's donation to the wife of a share in the assets of the business previously and afterwards conducted by him and conditioned upon her leaving the assets in the business, as a matter of federal tax law does not accomplish the formation of a partnership sufficient to relieve the husband of tax liability for the income derived after the transfer from use in the business of the share thus donated to the wife. In other words, I think that as a matter of law the taxpayers in these cases werePage 293liable for the taxes assessed against them, including the deficiency assessments; and, therefore, in my opinion the Tax Court is not free in these or substantially similar circumstances to draw either the contrary conclusion or opposing ones. While it is not strictly necessary to express this opinion in these cases in view of the Tax Court's consistent conclusions of liability, it is inconceivable to me that the two cases, consistently with the federal tax law, could be decided the other way or with different outcomes on the facts presented. Being of this opinion, I consider the failure to state it could only tend to perpetuate a source of possible confusion for the future.
  1. Page 284Earpv.Jones,131 F.2d 292(C. C.A. 10th);Meadv.Commissioner,131 F.2d 323(C. C.A. 5th);Argov.Commissioner,150 F.2d 67(C. C.A. 5th);Lorenzv.Commissioner,148 F.2d 527(C. C.A. 6th). ↩
  2. Page 284 See cases collected in Paul, Partnerships in Tax Avoidance, 13 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 121. ↩
  3. Page 285 For about six months immediately following incorporation the respondent owned only 425 shares. ↩
  4. Page 286 Since the Commissioner had determined that the wife was not really a partner, the burden rested upon the respondent to produce sufficient evidence to convince the Tax Court that the Commissioner's determination was wrong.Welchv.Helvering,290 U.S. 111;Commissionerv.Heininger,320 U.S. 467,475. ↩
  5. Page 286Wardv.Thompson, 22 How. 330, 333, 334;Meehanv.Valentine,145 U.S. 611,618. ↩
  6. Page 287 What would be the effect for tax purposes should taxpayers after holding themselves out as a partnership later challenge the existence of the partnership, is a question not here presented. SeeHigginsv.Smith,308 U.S. 473,477. ↩
  7. Page 289 Under some circumstances income has been held taxable to a person even when he does not own or control it.United Statesv.Joliet Chicago R. Co.,315 U.S. 44,46. ↩
  8. Page 290 See e.g.Croftv.Commissioner, [1944 P-H T.C. Mem. Dec. ¶ 44,330] T.C. No. 1432, decided October 11, 1944. ↩